Wednesday, March 18, 2015

THE STORY OF A MOTHER Hans Christian Andersen Fairy Tales

A mother sat there with her little child. She was so downcast, so afraid that it should die! It was so pale, the small eyes had closed themselves, and it drew its breath so softly, now and then, with a deep respiration, as if it sighed; and the mother looked still more sorrowfully on the little creature.

Then a knocking was heard at the door, and in came a poor old man wrapped up as in a large horse-cloth, for it warms one, and he needed it, as it was the cold winter season! Everything out-of-doors was covered with ice and snow, and the wind blew so that it cut the face.

As the old man trembled with cold, and the little child slept a moment, the mother went and poured some ale into a pot and set it on the stove, that it might be warm for him; the old man sat and rocked the cradle, and the mother sat down on a chair close by him, and looked at her little sick child that drew its breath so deep, and raised its little hand.

"Do you not think that I shall save him?" said she. "Our Lord will not take him from me!"

And the old man—it was Death himself—he nodded so strangely, it could just as well signify yes as no. And the mother looked down in her lap, and the tears ran down over her cheeks; her head became so heavy—she had not closed her eyes for three days and nights; and now she slept, but only for a minute, when she started up and trembled with cold.

"What is that?" said she, and looked on all sides; but the old man was gone, and her little child was gone—he had taken it with him; and the old clock in the corner burred, and burred, the great leaden weight ran down to the floor, bump! and then the clock also stood still.

But the poor mother ran out of the house and cried aloud for her child.

Out there, in the midst of the snow, there sat a woman in long, black clothes; and she said, "Death has been in thy chamber, and I saw him hasten away with thy little child; he goes faster than the wind, and he never brings back what he takes!"

"Oh, only tell me which way he went!" said the mother. "Tell me the way, and I shall find him!"

"I know it!" said the woman in the black clothes. "But before I tell it, thou must first sing for me all the songs thou hast sung for thy child! I am fond of them. I have heard them before; I am Night; I saw thy tears whilst thou sangst them!"

"I will sing them all, all!" said the mother. "But do not stop me now—I may overtake him—I may find my child!"

But Night stood still and mute. Then the mother wrung her hands, sang and wept, and there were many songs, but yet many more tears; and then Night said, "Go to the right, into the dark pine forest; thither I saw Death take his way with thy little child!"

The roads crossed each other in the depths of the forest, and she no longer knew whither she should go! then there stood a thorn-bush; there was neither leaf nor flower on it, it was also in the cold winter season, and ice-flakes hung on the branches.

"Hast thou not seen Death go past with my little child?" said the mother.

"Yes," said the thorn-bush; "but I will not tell thee which way he took, unless thou wilt first warm me up at thy heart. I am freezing to death; I shall become a lump of ice!"

And she pressed the thorn-bush to her breast, so firmly, that it might be thoroughly warmed, and the thorns went right into her flesh, and her blood flowed in large drops, but the thornbush shot forth fresh green leaves, and there came flowers on it in the cold winter night, the heart of the afflicted mother was so warm; and the thorn-bush told her the way she should go.

She then came to a large lake, where there was neither ship nor boat. The lake was not frozen sufficiently to bear her; neither was it open, nor low enough that she could wade through it; and across it she must go if she would find her child! Then she lay down to drink up the lake, and that was an impossibility for a human being, but the afflicted mother thought that a miracle might happen nevertheless.

"Oh, what would I not give to come to my child!" said the weeping mother; and she wept still more, and her eyes sunk down in the depths of the waters, and became two precious pearls; but the water bore her up, as if she sat in a swing, and she flew in the rocking waves to the shore on the opposite side, where there stood a mile-broad, strange house, one knew not if it were a mountain with forests and caverns, or if it were built up; but the poor mother could not see it; she had wept her eyes out.

"Where shall I find Death, who took away my little child?" said she.

"He has not come here yet!" said the old grave woman, who was appointed to look after Deaths great greenhouse! "How have you been able to find the way hither? And who has helped you?"

"OUR LORD has helped me," said she. "He is merciful, and you will also be so! Where shall I find my little child?"

"Nay, I know not," said the woman, "and you cannot see! Many flowers and trees have withered this night; Death will soon come and plant them over again! You certainly know that every person has his or her lifes tree or flower, just as everyone happens to be settled; they look like other plants, but they have pulsations of the heart. Childrens hearts can also beat; go after yours, perhaps you may know your childs; but what will you give me if I tell you what you shall do more?"

"I have nothing to give," said the afflicted mother, "but I will go to the worlds end for you!"

"Nay, I have nothing to do there!" said the woman. "But you can give me your long black hair; you know yourself that it is fine, and that I like! You shall have my white hair instead, and thats always something!"

"Do you demand nothing else?" said she. "That I will gladly give you!" And she gave her her fine black hair, and got the old womans snow-white hair instead.

So they went into Deaths great greenhouse, where flowers and trees grew strangely into one another. There stood fine hyacinths under glass bells, and there stood strong-stemmed peonies; there grew water plants, some so fresh, others half sick, the water-snakes lay down on them, and black crabs pinched their stalks. There stood beautiful palm-trees, oaks, and plantains; there stood parsley and flowering thyme: every tree and every flower had its name; each of them was a human life, the human frame still lived—one in China, and another in Greenland—round about in the world. There were large trees in small pots, so that they stood so stunted in growth, and ready to burst the pots; in other places, there was a little dull flower in rich mould, with moss round about it, and it was so petted and nursed. But the distressed mother bent down over all the smallest plants, and heard within them how the human heart beat; and amongst millions she knew her childs.

"There it is!" cried she, and stretched her hands out over a little blue crocus, that hung quite sickly on one side.

"Dont touch the flower!" said the old woman. "But place yourself here, and when Death comes—I expect him every moment—do not let him pluck the flower up, but threaten him that you will do the same with the others. Then he will be afraid! He is responsible for them to OUR LORD, and no one dares to pluck them up before HE gives leave."

All at once an icy cold rushed through the great hall, and the blind mother could feel that it was Death that came.

"How hast thou been able to find thy way hither?" he asked. "How couldst thou come quicker than I?"

"I am a mother," said she.

And Death stretched out his long hand towards the fine little flower, but she held her hands fast around his, so tight, and yet afraid that she should touch one of the leaves. Then Death blew on her hands, and she felt that it was colder than the cold wind, and her hands fell down powerless.

"Thou canst not do anything against me!" said Death.

"But OUR LORD can!" said she.

"I only do His bidding!" said Death. "I am His gardener, I take all His flowers and trees, and plant them out in the great garden of Paradise, in the unknown land; but how they grow there, and how it is there I dare not tell thee."

"Give me back my child!" said the mother, and she wept and prayed. At once she seized hold of two beautiful flowers close by, with each hand, and cried out to Death, "I will tear all thy flowers off, for I am in despair."

"Touch them not!" said Death. "Thou sayst that thou art so unhappy, and now thou wilt make another mother equally unhappy."

"Another mother!" said the poor woman, and directly let go her hold of both the flowers.

"There, thou hast thine eyes," said Death; "I fished them up from the lake, they shone so bright; I knew not they were thine. Take them again, they are now brighter than before; now look down into the deep well close by; I shall tell thee the names of the two flowers thou wouldst have torn up, and thou wilt see their whole future life—their whole human existence: and see what thou wast about to disturb and destroy."

And she looked down into the well; and it was a happiness to see how the one became a blessing to the world, to see how much happiness and joy were felt everywhere. And she saw the others life, and it was sorrow and distress, horror, and wretchedness.

"Both of them are Gods will!" said Death.

"Which of them is Misfortunes flower and which is that of Happiness?" asked she.

"That I will not tell thee," said Death; "but this thou shalt know from me, that the one flower was thy own child! it was thy childs fate thou sawst—thy own childs future life!"

Then the mother screamed with terror, "Which of them was my child? Tell it me! Save the innocent! Save my child from all that misery! Rather take it away! Take it into Gods kingdom! Forget my tears, forget my prayers, and all that I have done!"

"I do not understand thee!" said Death. "Wilt thou have thy child again, or shall I go with it there, where thou dost not know!"

Then the mother wrung her hands, fell on her knees, and prayed to our Lord: "Oh, hear me not when I pray against Thy will, which is the best! hear me not! hear me not!"

And she bowed her head down in her lap, and Death took her child and went with it into the unknown land.
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Cholesterol definition What is Cholesterol



Cholesterol is a fatty substance found in all animal tissues. The substance makes up an important part of the membranes of each cell in the human body. The liver uses cholesterol to manufacture bile acids, which aid indigestion.
Cholesterol is also utilized in the production of certain hormones, including sex hormones.

Where is cholesterol produced?

The human body manufactures most of its own cholesterol. All body cells are capable of production, but most is made by liver cells.
Cholesterol also enters the body in food, particularly from butter, eggs, fatty meats, shellfish, and organ meats, such as liver and brains.

How is cholesterol transported in the body?

Three types of special molecules called lipoproteins:

  • high-density lipoproteins (HDL), 
  • low-density lipoproteins (LDL), and 
  • very low- density lipoproteins (VLDL)

transport cholesterol from the liver through the bloodstream to cells throughout the body.

What does high cholesterol mean?

Although the body needs cholesterol, high levels of LDL-type and VLDL-type cholesterol have been linked to certain diseases, particularly atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).
One large study of middle-aged men with elevated cholesterol levels showed that for each one percent reduction in blood cholesterol level the chance of heart attack was reduced by two percent. Because of this, many physicians have recommended a diet low in cholesterol and saturated fats to reduce risk of heart attacks and atherosclerosis elsewhere in the body.
Each person’s ability to maintain a healthy level of cholesterol is determined partially by inheritance and partially by diet.
Foods high in saturated fats and cholesterol should be reduced in quantity and frequency.
Consultation with a physician or nutritionist will help direct effective changes toward a more healthy diet and lifestyle. Several books are also available for this purpose. Adults should have their blood cholesterol checked every five years by their physician in order to control this very important health risk factor.
It should be checked more often if other cardiac risk factors are present.

Good cholesterol - What is good cholesterol?

HDL-type cholesterol is sometimes referred to as “good cholesterol” because, unlike the other types, high levels of HDL-type cholesterol may actually provide protection against heart attack.

How to increase good cholesterol?

Exercise and a diet high in fish may improve the HDL level.
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The Three Billy Goats Gruff FAIRY TALES FOR KIDS

a Norwegian folk tale
Once upon a time there were three Billy Goats who wanted to go up to the hillside to make themselves fat, and the name of all three was “Gruff.”
On the way up, they had to cross a bridge over a stream. And under this bridge lived a great ugly Troll with eyes as big as saucers and a nose as long as a poker.
The first to cross the bridge was the youngest Billy Goat Gruff.
“Trip, trap! Trip, trap” went his hoofs on the bridge.

“Who’s that trip-trapping over my bridge?” roared the Troll.

“Oh! It is only I, the tiniest Billy Goat Gruff. I am going up to the hillside to make myself fat,” said the Billy Goat in a very small voice.
“Well, I’m coming to gobble you up!” said the Troll.
“Oh, no! Please do not take me. I’m too little, that I am,” said the Billy Goat.
“Wait a bit till the second Billy Goat Gruff comes. He’s much bigger.”
“Very well, be off with you!” said the Troll.
A little while later, the second Billy Goat Gruff came across the bridge.
“Trip, Trap! Trip, trap! Trip, trap!” went his hoofs on the bridge.
“Who’s that trip-trapping over my bridge?” roared the Troll.
“Oh! It’s the second Billy Goat Gruff. I am going up to make myself fat,” said the Billy Goat in a strong voice.


“Well, I’m coming to gobble you up!” said the Troll.
“Oh, no! Don’t take me. Wait a bit till the big Billy Goat Gruff comes. He’s much bigger.”
“Very well, be off with you!” said the Troll.
Just then, along came the big Billy Goat Gruff. “Trip, trap! Trip, trap! Trip, trap! Trip, trap!” went his hoofs on the bridge.
The big Billy Goat Gruff was so heavy, the bridge creaked and groaned under him.
“Who’s that trip-trapping over my bridge?” roared the Troll.
“It is I! The big Billy Goat Gruff!” said the Billy Goat, who had a very loud voice of his own.
“Well, I’m coming to gobble you up,” roared the Troll.
Then the big Billy Goat Gruff said:

“I’ve got two hoofs as hard as stones,
And I’ll dance on you ’til I bruise your bones.
I’ve got two horns upon my head
And I’ll throw you into a watery bed!”

And so he rushed at the Troll and knocked him down and danced all over him with his hard hoofs. Then he caught him on his horns and tossed him into the stream, and that was the end of the Troll. After that he went up to the hillside.

There, the three Billy Goats Gruff got so fat they were hardly able to walk home again. And if they haven’t gotten thinner, why they’re still fat; and so,

Snip, snap, snout,
This tale’s told out.

http://www.smartkids123.com
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BRIEF REVIEW OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL

Life scientists have separated cells into two sorts: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic.
The distinction between these two categories of cells is primarily based upon the structure of their core i.e. nuclei. 

In prokaryotic cells, the heritable material (DNA) is without any membrane covering and is openly submerged in the cytoplasm. 

image of prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotes have a very well defined core i.e. nucleus, in which nuclear material (chromosomes or DNA) is encased in two fold nuclear membrane.


image of eukaryotic cell

Living organisms acquiring prokaryotic cells are called Prokaryotes and those possessing eukaryotic cells are called Eukaryotes. Prokaryotes take account of bacteria and blue green alga. Eukaryotes comprise all other unicellular or multicellular creatures for instance animals, plants, fungi and Protista.


Prokaryotic cells for the most part are a shortage of many of the membrane bounded structures found in eukaryotic cells. For instance, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts and Golgi apparatus are not present in prokaryotic cells. As there is no nuclear membrane, a prokaryotic cell has no distinct core nucleus and its DNA molecule is directly submerged in cytoplasm. Prokaryotes have little estimated ribosomes 70s contrasted with eukaryotes 80s.

70S prokaryotic ribosome
Eukaryotes have larger sized ribosomes of 80S. They are composed of two parts i.e. 60S and 40S.

80S eukaryotic ribosome

In prokaryotes, mitosis is missing and the cell reproduces by binary fission. As a consequence of their simpler structure, it was generally accepted for quite a while that prokaryotic cells speak to a more primitive phase of development than eukaryotic cells. Perhaps the most distinguishing feature of the prokaryotic cell is that its cell divider composed of polysaccharide chains which are covalently bounded to shorter chains of amino acids structuring peptidoglycan or murein. The entire cell wall is viewed as a single and solitary enormous particle or sub-atomic complex called sacculus. The cell wall of plants for the most part is composed of cellulose and is distinctively structured than that of a bacterium.
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WHAT IS KINETIC ENERGY FOR KIDS

Do you know what you are made of?

One answer is that you are made of flesh, blood, and bone.
Another answer is that you are made of atoms and molecules. Atoms are tiny bits of matter that join together to make everything in the world. An atom is over a million times smaller than the thickness of a human hair. Atoms come together to form groups called molecules. Powerful microscopes produce pictures of atoms and molecules. We cannot see them directly.

What is kinetic energy?

Atoms and molecules are in motion all the time. They have energy called kinetic energy.
“Kinetic” comes from a Greek word meaning to move.
In a solid object like a bar of iron, the atoms are packed close together.
When the iron bar is cold, they vibrate only a little.
When the iron bar is heated up, the atoms start to move faster and faster.
The quicker the atoms move, the more kinetic energy they have.
If the iron bar becomes hot enough, the atoms have so much kinetic energy that they can separate from each other.
Then the solid iron melts and becomes a liquid.
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Out of Sight Out of Mind

Roots are the most neglected parts of plants, perhaps because they are out of sight and - superficially at least - lack the intrinsic aesthetic beauty of the above-ground parts. For most (although not all) plants they are vital structures and - when you look really closely - they have an intricate beauty of their own.

Root tips are sensitive gravity detectors, ensuring that the root always grows downwards into the soil. This root was held in the horizontal plane for less than an hour before it redirected its growth downwards. Behind the root tip you can see the point where the root hairs develop, with newly initiated root hairs just visible nearest the root tip but becoming longer as you move away from it. Further back still the root hairs die away continually and each has a life span of just a day or two, but they are continually replaced as the root penetrates further into the soil. The passage of the root through the soil is assisted by lubricating mucilage produced by the root tip, whose surface cells slough off. The mucilage also supports a bacterial microflora that helps the root acquire nutrients and may provide some protection from disease-producing organisms.

This is a root tip sectioned vertically and stained with a  fluorescent dye called DAPI. If you click on the image to enlarge it the details will be a little clearer. The brightly fluoresescing dots are the nuclei, one per cell, and you can see the files of cells produced by sequential cell division followed by cell elongation, which pushes the root ever-further into the soil.

This is a root in transverse section, further back from the tip than the previous image, in the middle of the root hair zone. It has been stained with a fluorescent dye called calcofluor, which makes the cellulose cell walls fluoresce blue in ultraviolet light. From the outside inwards, you can see the long root hairs, each a single cell that arises from the root epidermis (surface layer of cells). Next inwards lies the root cortex, which constitutes the vast bulk of the cells, then in the centre you can see the stele - the cylinder of vascular tissue that transports water upwards to the rest of the plant and carries sugars and amino acides downwards to support the continued growth of the root.

The arrangement of the various cells and structures is more clearly visible here, at higher magnification. The large circles in the stele, top left, are xylem vessels that conduct water away from the root.

The root hairs, which are in intimate contact with the soil particles, absorb water and soluble minerals that are transported through the root cortex, both from cell-to-cell within cell cytoplasm (the symplastic route) and through cell walls and the spaces between cells (the apoplastic route), to the stele in the centre of the root.


Once the water reaches the stele it encounters a single layer of cells called the endodermis, that sheaths the stele. The walls of the endodermal cells contain a substance called suberin which renders them impermeable, so water that arrived via the apoplastic route is forced into and through the cytoplasm of these cells, where dissolved minerals are selectively removed. You can see the suberin deposits, known as the Casparian strip, as the orange staining in the single ring of cells that lies between the blue and the yellow cells in the section of a stele above. Some water also passes unimpeded through specialised passage cells in the endodermis - if you follow the ring of cells with the orange stained Casparian strip in their cell walls around the stele in the image above, youll notice a few passage cells with no orange-stained suberin deposit in their walls.
Almost all the water taken up and transmitted via both routes, via the cytoplasm of the endodemis cells or via their passage cells,  then enters the dead xylem cells that carry it aloft in the water column that is drawn upwards by transpiration from the leaves.

When gardeners buy plants in garden centres theres a great temptation to simply dig a hole and plant them, without teasing out the pot-bound roots or cultivating the soil around the planting hole, but a little tender, loving care for root systems pays great dividends: the vigour of the plant above the soil depends on the health of the roots, hidden below the surface.
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RULES OF THE AIRWAYS


Takeoffs are optional. Landings are mandatory.

Flying is not dangerous; crashing is dangerous.

Speed is life, altitude is life insurance. No one has ever collided with the sky.

The only time you have too much fuel is when youre on fire.

Flying is the second greatest thrill known to man. Landing is the first!

Everyone knows a good landing is one from which you can walk away. But a great landing is one after which you can use the airplane again.

The probability of survival is equal to the angle of arrival.

Was that a landing or were we shot down?

Learn from the mistakes of others. You wont live long enough to make all of them yourself.

Trust your captain.... but keep your seat belt securely fastened.

Be nice to your first officer, he may be your captain at your next airline.

Any attempt to stretch fuel is guaranteed to increase headwind.

A pilot is a confused soul who talks about women when hes flying, and about flying when hes with a woman.

Try to keep the number of your landings equal to the number of your takeoffs.

There are old pilots, and there are bold pilots, but there are no old, bold, pilots!

Gravity never loses! The best you can hope for is a draw!

Gravity SUCKS!!
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THE ECONOMY IS SO BAD

THE ECONOMY IS SO BAD THAT:

· I got a pre-declined credit card in the mail.

· CEOs are now playing miniature golf.

· Exxon-Mobil laid off 25 Congressmen.

· I saw a Mormon with only one wife.

· I bought a toaster oven and my free gift was a bank.

· Angelina Jolie adopted a child from America.

· Motel Six wont leave the light on anymore.

· A picture is now only worth 200 words.

· They renamed Wall Street "Wal-Mart Street”

· When Bill and Hillary travel together, they now have to share a room.

And, finally...

· I was so depressed last night thinking about the economy, wars, jobs, my savings, Social Security, retirement funds, etc., I called the Suicide Hotline. I got a call center in Pakistan, and when I told them I was suicidal, they got all excited and asked if I could drive a truck.

SHARED FROM ; RAMESH
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SHIV AM!!!

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SIMPLIFIED WHAT IS HIGGS BOSON

The first post on this blog was quite a while ago/(Heres the link in case you want to take a look.) The post had all the known and easy facts but for a few days,I really wanted to do a post with more depth and penetration into the topic.In all the websites that I have checked,it might be quite difficult for some to understand the actual fact.Thanks to CERNs website (www.cern.org) that this concept indeed got so much more well-explained to me.So,in this post,I will be explaining step by step,asking questions in every step to get the whole concept easier.Hope that this helps!

Question 1 : WHAT IS HIGGS BOSON?

On 4 July 2012, the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERNs Large Hadron Collider announced they had each observed a new particle in the mass region around 126 GeV. This particle is consistent with the Higgs boson but it will take further work to determine whether or not it is the Higgs boson predicted by the Standard Model. The Higgs boson, as proposed within the Standard Model, is the simplest manifestation of the Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism. Other types of Higgs bosons are predicted by other theories that go beyond the Standard Model.


Protons collide at 14 TeV in this simulation from CMS, producing four muons. Lines denote other particles, and energy deposited is shown in blue (Image: CMS)

Question 2 : WHAT IS THE BROUT-ENGLERT-HIGGS MODEL?


In the 1970s, physicists realized that there are very close ties between two of the four fundamental forces – the weak force and the electromagnetic force. The two forces can be described within the same theory, which forms the basis of the Standard Model. This “unification” implies that electricity, magnetism, light and some types of radioactivity are all manifestations of a single underlying force known as the electroweak force.
The basic equations of the unified theory correctly describe the electroweak force and its associated force-carrying particles, namely the photon, and the W and Z bosons, except for a major glitch. All of these particles emerge without a mass. While this is true for the photon, we know that the W and Z have mass, nearly 100 times that of a proton. Fortunately, theorists Robert Brout, François Englert and Peter Higgs made a proposal that was to solve this problem. What we now call the Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism gives a mass to the W and Z when they interact with an invisible field, now called the “Higgs field”, which pervades the universe.

A Higgs boson decays to 4 leptons in this collision recorded by the ATLAS detector on 18 May 2012 (Image: ATLAS)

Question 3 : How would you explain that? 

Just after the big bang, the Higgs field was zero, but as the universe cooled and the temperature fell below a critical value, the field grew spontaneously so that any particle interacting with it acquired a mass. The more a particle interacts with this field, the heavier it is. Particles like the photon that do not interact with it are left with no mass at all. Like all fundamental fields, the Higgs field has an associated particle – the Higgs boson. The Higgs boson is the visible manifestation of the Higgs field, rather like a wave at the surface of the sea.



The Big Bang Explosion

Question 4 : What is Weak Force?

Weak force, a fundamental force of nature that underlies some forms of radioactivity, governs the decay of unstable subatomic particles such as mesons, and initiates the nuclear fusion reaction that fuels the Sun. The weak force acts upon all known fermions—i.e., elementary particles with half-integer values of intrinsic angular momentum, or spin. Credit : (www.britannica.com)

Question 5 : What is Standard Model?

Matter particles

All matter around us is made of elementary particles, the building blocks of matter. These particles occur in two basic types called quarks and leptons. Each group consists of six particles, which are related in pairs, or “generations”. The lightest and most stable particles make up the first generation, whereas the heavier and less stable particles belong to the second and third generations. All stable matter in the universe is made from particles that belong to the first generation; any heavier particles quickly decay to the next most stable level. The six quarks are paired in the three generations – the “up quark” and the “down quark” form the first generation, followed by the “charm quark” and “strange quark”, then the “top quark” and “bottom (or beauty) quark”. Quarks also come in three different “colours” and only mix in such ways as to form colourless objects. The six leptons are similarly arranged in three generations – the “electron” and the “electron neutrino”, the “muon” and the “muon neutrino”, and the “tau” and the “tau neutrino”. The electron, the muon and the tau all have an electric charge and a sizeable mass, whereas the neutrinos are electrically neutral and have very little mass.

Forces and carrier particles

There are four fundamental forces at work in the universe: the strong force, the weak force, the electromagnetic force, and the gravitational force. They work over different ranges and have different strengths. Gravity is the weakest but it has an infinite range. The electromagnetic force also has infinite range but it is many times stronger than gravity. The weak and strong forces are effective only over a very short range and dominate only at the level of subatomic particles. Despite its name, the weak force is much stronger than gravity but it is indeed the weakest of the other three. The strong force, as the name suggests, is the strongest of all four fundamental interactions.
Three of the fundamental forces result from the exchange of force-carrier particles, which belong to a broader group called “bosons”. Particles of matter transfer discrete amounts of energy by exchanging bosons with each other. Each fundamental force has its own corresponding boson – the strong force is carried by the “gluon”, the electromagnetic force is carried by the “photon”, and the “W and Z bosons” are responsible for the weak force. Although not yet found, the “graviton” should be the corresponding force-carrying particle of gravity. The Standard Model includes the electromagnetic, strong and weak forces and all their carrier particles, and explains well how these forces act on all of the matter particles. However, the most familiar force in our everyday lives, gravity, is not part of the Standard Model, as fitting gravity comfortably into this framework has proved to be a difficult challenge. The quantum theory used to describe the micro world, and the general theory of relativity used to describe the macro world, are difficult to fit into a single framework. No one has managed to make the two mathematically compatible in the context of the Standard Model. But luckily for particle physics, when it comes to the minuscule scale of particles, the effect of gravity is so weak as to be negligible. Only when matter is in bulk, at the scale of the human body or of the planets for example, does the effect of gravity dominate. So the Standard Model still works well despite its reluctant exclusion of one of the fundamental forces.

So far so good, but...


...it is not time for physicists to call it a day just yet. Even though the Standard Model is currently the best description there is of the subatomic world, it does not explain the complete picture. The theory incorporates only three out of the four fundamental forces, omitting gravity. There are also important questions that it does not answer, such as “What is dark matter?”, or “What happened to the antimatter after the big bang?”, “Why are there three generations of quarks and leptons with such a different mass scale?” and more. Last but not least is a particle called the Higgs boson, an essential component of the Standard Model.

Question 6 : What is Strong Force?

Strong force, a fundamental interaction of nature that acts between subatomic particles of matter. The strong force binds quarks together in clusters to make more-familiar subatomic particles, such as protons and neutrons. It also holds together the atomic nucleus and underlies interactions between all particles containing quarks.(Credit : www.britannica.com)

Question 7 : What is a W boson?

Discovered in 1983, the W boson is a fundamental particle. Together with the Z boson, it is responsible for the weak force, one of four fundamental forces that govern the behaviour of matter in our universe. Particles of matter interact by exchanging these bosons, but only over short distances.
The W boson, which is electrically charged, changes the very make up of particles. It switches protons into neutrons, and vice versa, through the weak force, triggering nuclear fusion and letting stars burn. This burning also creates heavier elements and, when a star dies, those elements are tossed into space as the building blocks for planets and even people.
The weak force was combined with the electromagnetic force in theories of a unified electroweak force in the 1960s, in an effort to make the basic physics mathematically consistent. But the theory called for the force-carrying particles to be massless, even though scientists knew the theoretical W boson had to be heavy to account for its short range. Theorists accounted for the mass of the W by introducing another unseen mechanism. This became known as the Higgs mechanism, which calls for the existence of a Higgs boson.

As announced in July of 2012 at CERN, scientists have discovered a boson that looks much like the particle predicted by Peter Higgs, among others. While this boson is not yet confirmed as the Higgs boson predicted to make sense of the electroweak force, the W boson had a large part in its discovery.


The W boson

Question 8 : What is a Z boson?


Discovered in 1983 by physicists at the Super Proton Synchrotron at CERN, the Z boson is a neutral elementary particle. Like its electrically charged cousin, the W, the Z boson carries the weak force.
The weak force is essentially as strong as the electromagnetic force, but it appears weak because its influence is limited by the large mass of the Z and W bosons. Their mass limits the range of the weak force to about 10-18 metres, and it vanishes altogether beyond the radius of a single proton.
Enrico Fermi was the first to put forth a theory of the weak force in 1933, but it was not until the 1960s that Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg developed the theory in its present form, when they proposed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are actually different manifestations of one electroweak force. 
By emitting an electrically charged W boson, the weak force can cause a particle such as the proton to change its charge by changing the flavour of its quarks. In 1958, Sidney Bludman suggested that there might be another arm of the weak force, the so-called "weak neutral current," mediated by an uncharged partner of the W bosons, which later became known as the Z boson.

This image taken by the UA1 experiment at CERN on 30 April 1983 was later confirmed to be the first detection of a Z particle (Image: UA1/CERN)
Question 9 : Who received the Nobel Prize for the discovery?
Peter Higgs,Francois Englert.Robert Brout died in 2011,thus being unable to receive the Nobel Prize.

Robert Brout


François Englert (left) and Peter Higgs at CERN on 4 July 2012, on the occasion of the announcement of the discovery of a Higgs boson by the ATLAS and CMS experiments (Image: Maximilien Brice/CERN)


Question 10 : Why is the discovery of Higgs Boson so significant?
This is because this would prove to be the one of the greatest successes in Particle Physics.The Higgs Boson explains the Higgs field,which would help us in understanding the major secrets of the universe.

Members of the ATLAS and CMS collaborations react with jubilation at CERN as the announcement is made (Image: Maximilien Brice/CERN)
My Caption (A nerds Caption) : Oh Wow! Look there - nerds!

Credits : www.cern.org
www.britannica.com
www.wikipedia.org
Maximillan Brice (CERN)
physics.edu.bu
ATLAS
CMS
UA1
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LEGEND ALBERT EINSTEIN 2



This is the continuation of my LEGEND : ALBERT EINSTEIN (1) Post which you can read Here.


SCIENTIFIC WORKS


Quantized atomic vibrations


In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently – a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be different, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.


Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables



Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.
Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic inverience of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics.

Wave–particle duality


Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a ptivatdozent at the University of Bern. In "über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation. "), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Plancks energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave particle duality in quantum mechanics.


Theory of critical opalescence


Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue. Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.

Credit : Wikipedia

TO BE CONTINUED IN PART 3

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EVENTS HAPPENING DURING OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA

EVENTS DURING OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA:

There is some changing in the chemistry of Stomata which results in the opening and closing of stomata. Following are the events which occur resulting the opening and closing of stomata.

  • While opening of stomata, Hydrogen ions (H+) which are present in the guard cells are pumped out of the guard cells resulting in the lowering of positive charge and accumulation of negative charge in the guard cells.
  • Due to this lowering of positive charge in guard cells, Potassium ions (K+) enter the guard cells.
  • Due to this, Osmotic pressure in the guard cells is lowered, which attracts the water to enter into the cell.
  • Starch in the chloroplast is converted into Malate ions.

Closed and Open Stomata

Closing:

Opposite of all above points results in closure of stomata cells.
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WISH YOU WERE HERE ALBUM SONGS THE PERSPECTIVES

Yesterday, I had said there were going to be Pink Floyd songs on The Perspectives in this post. Here are the songs from the album Wish You Were Here by Pink Floyd.(I could not upload Welcome to the Machine - its a bit bigger in size than 10 Mb. Listen to the songs and I can promise youll be mesmerised.I will upload another copy later) Here are the other songs -


  • Wish You Were Here
  • Shine On You Crazy Diamond
  • Have A Cigar
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What is Balanitis



Balanitis is inflammation of the end of the penis (the glans penis), accompanied by itching and a slight discharge.
It is caused by a failure to keep the glans clean.
Balanitis is more common in men and boys who have not been circumcised, particularly if they suffer from phimosis (the inability to pull back the foreskin).
Prevention and treatment depend on keeping the area washed and clean.
A physician should be consulted if the disorder does not clear up promptly.
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